Developing a Human Resource Management Strategy - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1849 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Human Resource management is term that basically describes the individuals in shape of group or labor force working in an organization. Human resource management deals with the advertisement of job for Organizations, hiring of right person for right job at right time. Human resource management is mainly responsible for all the strategy making and policies regarding organizational objectives and goals. What is human resource management? According to Amstrong, M. (2006) Human Resource Management is defined as a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organizations most valued assets the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives. Storey (1989), cited by (Armstrong M. 2006) A set of interrelated policies with an ideology and philosophical underpinning. Storey (1989) suggested that is the real mixture of Human Resource Management: A particular constellation of beliefs and assumptions. A strategic trust and informing decisions about people management. The central involvement of line managers, and Reliance upon a set of levers to shape the employment ship. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Developing a Human Resource Management Strategy" essay for you Create order Human Resource System: Human Resource Management walks along with Human Resource System that combines in following way: HR Philosophy: it talks about values and guiding principles that are linked in the range of Human Resource Management. HR Strategies: it defines the directions of Human Resource Management. HR Policies: it describes how philosophy and strategies, value and principles would be applied in the scope of Human Resource Management. HR Process: it shows the formal processes and ways that how to adopt and implement HR Strategic plan and policies. HR Practices: it includes casual approaches to deals in the scope of Human Resource Management. HR Program: this program enables all philosophies, policies, procedures, strategies and practices to get into practical form according to action plan (Armstrong M. 2006). Developing a HRM strategy: HRM strategy is made for the organizational objectives to deals with the coherent approach of management of people in the organizations. It is same like other strategies that are made for marketing, finance, and similarly there is a strategy for human resource management. In the process of developing strategies for human resource management one of the critical point should keep in mind (Alan Mumford, Jeffrey Gold, 2004). What kinds of people do you need to manage and run your business to meet your strategic business objectives? What people programs and initiatives must be designed and implemented to attract, develop and retain staff to compete effectively?( Alan Mumford, Jeffrey Gold, 2004) In order to answer these questions four key points of an organization must be addressed. These are: Culture: one should keep an eye on organizational culture and the beliefs, values, norms and management style. Organization: the structure, job roles and organizational hierarchy of the organization People: the skill levels, staff potential and management capability and skills of the staff. Human resources systems: one should keep an eye on the mechanisms which deliver the strategy employee selection, communications, training, rewards, and career development. In the HR strategy it is sometimes overlooked by the strategy maker focus on all the senior managers they deal with the main dimensions of the business and neglect the smaller ones. Then these companies reengineer their organizations to free managers to have more business oriented but they have some loopholes in the training and reward system. When the desired entrepreneurial behavior does not emerge managers frequently look confused at the apparent failure of the changes to deliver results. The fact is that seldom can you focus on only one area. What is required is a strategic perspective aimed at identifying the relationship between all four dimensions. If you require an organization whi ch really values quality and service you not only have to retrain staff, you must also review the organization, reward, and appraisal and communications systems. The pay and reward system is a classic problem in this area. Frequently organizations have payment systems which are designed around the volume of output produced. If you then seek to develop a company which emphasizes the products quality you must change the pay systems. Otherwise you have a contradiction between what the chief executive is saying about quality and what your payment system is encouraging staff to do. Process of developing HRM strategy: Step 1: Get the big picture Understand your business strategy. The management should indentify the key forces of business those can be technology, distribution, competition, the markets. What are the implications of these driving forces in to you organization. Noggin What are the different contribution your operations. Step 2: Develop a Mission Statement or Statement of Intent That relates to the people side of the business. In the mission statement, organization should be realistic and dont not put fake ideas to the statements. It will give a bad impression to the readers and customers. Add that what you people are going to add in this. Step 3: Conduct a SWOT analysis of the organization Organization should focus on the internal strengths and weakness, and make improvements to overcome these weaknesses. They must use current skill, and capabilities. They must do external research and look what are the opportunities they would have in future and what are the threats they are going to face in future. This SWOT will defiantly adds to the performance of the organization. Step 4: Conduct a detailed human resources analysis They must do the details analysis of human resource management to see the culture, people and the HR strategies. Must look into what you are at this time and what you want to be in future as organization. Step 5: Determine critical people issues Look into the initials on the organization from where you start; either you strategies are matching with your SWOT and PESTLE analysis. Indentify the critical issues associated with the organization. Indentify what are the failures and the reasons behind it. Always make sure that where you want to go as organization, keep eye on your goals and objectives. Step 6: Develop consequences and solutions Always try for bad time, and get ready got the back up plans and action plans. Dont stick to assumptions, try to indentify where the problem is and think about the consequences of it. Indentify what are the implications for the business HR department have with it. Take out the broad objectives of the organization out, some of them are as follows: employee training and development management development organization development performance appraisal employee reward employee selection and recruitment manpower planning communication Step 7: Implementation and evaluation of the action plans The ultimate goal of developing HR strategy is that all the objectives are set in a effective form and these objectives are achievable, and all these objectives are integrated. Intellectual capital and knowledge management: The terms refers to the all resources of any organizations have with it. They have competitive advantage of these intellectual property rights. As such, it includes as subsets the attributes that concur to building all financial statements as well as the balance sheet. According to Nermien Al-Ali, N. (2003) Intellectual Capital of an organization such intangible resources and assets that an organization can be use to create value by converting into new processes , products and services. Knowledge Management (KM)ÂÂ  comprises a range of strategies and practices used in an organization to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption ofÂÂ  insightsÂÂ  and experiences. Such insights and experiences compriseÂÂ  knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organizationalÂÂ  processesÂÂ  or practice (Wikipedia). According to Awad Ghaziri, H. (2007) Knowledge Management is newly, interdisciplinary business model that has knowledge within the frame work of an organization and it focus. It is rooted in many disciplines, including business, economics, and psychology and information management. Intellectual capital (IC) is a key driver of innovation and competitive advantage in todays knowledge based economy. At the same time, knowledge management (KM) is recognized as the fundamental activity for obtaining, growing and sustaining IC in organizations. This means that the successful management of IC is closely linked to the KM processes an organization has in place; which in turn implies that the successful implementation and usage of KM ensures the acquisition and growth of IC. Source : www.emeraldinsight.com/0025-1747.htm Strategies for management development: According to Lee (1992) cited by Alan Mumford, Jeffrey Gold (2004) the entire system of corporate activities with the espoused goal of improving the managerial stock in the context of organizational and environmental change. This definition tells the number of objectives: This is a powerful device that reengineers the organizational structure. This tool gives cost reduction but gives quality and profitability. It contributes to the development of a learning organization. It also assists in self development. Management developments ensure some benefits to the organization, that includes; This always adds to the performance of the organization. The performance can be gauge from the terms of agriculture; agriculture is way of repeating the view of some organization that we need to grow our own managers. It uses to say that if management development has purpose in the organization then this has a link with organizational strategy. Every organizations responds to global influences and environmental changes like; globalization, technological change and customer demands, here Management Development plays a role as strategic tool to the implementation of strategy development and consequently improves business and organization externally. . Figure Sustaining Model of Development (Mumford. A, Gold. J, 2004) Managers need to come up with the new role and skills to become productive. Management Developments provides the sustain opportunity to organizations to have winning positions. Sustaining model defines some points here which are: Strategy is sets of outcomes to gauge the changes occurred in the environment. Strategy provides guidance on the requirement to the managers; new skills and performance and productivity. Management development policies define that requirement to provide management developments activities. The outcomes of developments being assessed and management provides feedback to organizational strategy. There are various reasons to form a Management Development strategy, which includes: Some time it happens that there is some change in technology that changes job and work design and organizational structure. Management development strategy can be form under some mergers and acq uisitions. This strategy also forms when they are market development or come up with new services. It also helps in identifying weakness and poor performance. Employee Partnerships: There are Five Partnership Principles model. The following principles form the satisfaction axis of the model: Systems and Leadership: this is important to give job security, input on decisions, recognition, communication and information, fairwaters in employee partnership. Resources: in the employee partnership it must be including physical environment, equipment, staffing. Teamwork: including respect and coordination are part of principles. Direct management: in the employee partnership model feedback, coaching, trust, communication, recognition is important to look forward. Engagement: Job engagement: it is mandatory fulfillment from the work performed, use of skills, and feeling of accomplishment by performing the jobs. Work engagement: participating in a work group that shares attentiveness to quality and customer needs, to enhance the productivity, sense of connection. Organizational engagement: as evidenced by a willingness to stay with a facility and recommend it to others, along with pride in the organization and alignment with its values (press ganey, 2010).

The Civil War And American History - 2238 Words

Rachel Lee Professor Salazar History 141 4 December 2014 The Civil War The Civil War is a war that happens within a country and in this case, the Civil War took place in the United States between the North and the South. The Civil War happened between the North and the South for various reasons. Both sides expected a short war with few casualties, and instead a little over 1 million soldiers died in the Civil War. After the war was over, the war left a huge impact on the modern world through the federal government, industry, American Nationalism, the women in the United States, religion, and philosophy. The Civil War is so important to American history because it changed and shaped our modern day economy and it happened right here on our home turf. The Civil War were four years of bloody and prolonged battles and both sides just assumed that the war would not change their societies dramatically and the Southerners were hoping and presuming that their plantations would continue to thrive. Meanwhile the Northerners were just hoping that the people in the South would soon realize their error and that they would be readmitted to the Union. However, given the circumstances of the impact on the modern world from the Civil War and the outcome of the war, these predictions that the people made were proven to be inaccurate. Both the North and South were expecting a short war and did not take the prospect of fighting all that seriously, but instead, the war lasted for four years andShow MoreRelatedThe Civil War On American History1206 Words   |  5 Pagescountry divided, the Civil War left a huge impact in history as it helped form what our nation is today. An inevitable conflict that was due in time to transform into a war, the Civil War was influenced by societal interests, economic changes along with political disagreements. Together, these influences sparked a nation into a great divide that ended in what is known as the deadliest war in American history. Just In the aftermath of the industrial revolution, the Civil War was ignited due to economicRead MoreAmerican History : The Civil War1138 Words   |  5 PagesWar makes us what we are. It changes our lives and makes our past into the future. One of the most important events in American history was the Civil War (1861 to 1865). The Civil War changed thousands of lives and our nation. At the beginning the Civil War, it divided our country but at the end of the Civil War, it brought our country back together recreating the United States. â€Å"But the Civil War defined us as what we are and it opened us to being what we became, good and bad things. It was theRead MoreThe Civil War And American History890 Words   |  4 Pages In American History many significant events took place that reflected religious faith of multiple Americans and has shaped the world we live in today. Throughout the 1800s, the most memorable times in America took place throughout the Civil War. Events that esc alated before, during and even following the Civil War resulted in a chain of reactions from many people within that period. After analyzing the events of the Civil War, I was able to draw a connection to the actions of the soldiers, womenRead MoreThe Civil War And American History1528 Words   |  7 Pages Before we discuss the Civil War, we need to discuss how and what lead to this major turning point in American History. Both sides, the Union and the Confederate had its reasons to attack each other. Whether it be the lack of contribution towards the government by the South, or the constant disturbance to free slaves from the North, tempers flared years before the first shots were ever fired. The disagreements between the North and the South were too much for the South to endure, they felt forcedRead MoreAmerican History And The Civil War Essay1287 Words   |  6 PagesOne of American history’s famous battles involves the diverging of Northern and Southern states. Even wh en this time period itself is taught, at least from my experience learning it, that divide between Northern and Southern ideology seems even more pronounced. As United States territory expanded, so did hesitations of citizens on both sides—both Northerners and Southerners thought strongholds were put in place to sway governmental opinion, and consequently, actions. In order to bring the nationRead MoreHistory And The American Civil War Essay1927 Words   |  8 PagesIn the history of the United States, African Americans have always been discriminated against. When Africans first came to America, they were taken against their will and forced to work as laborers. They became slaves to the rich, greedy, lazy Americans. They were given no pay and often badly whipped and beaten. African Americans fought for their freedom, and up until the Civil War it was never given to them. When the Civil War began, they wanted to take part in fighting to free all slaves. TheirRead MoreAmerican History And The American Civil War1610 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout American history, the United States Mint has coined several denominations that would now be considered â€Å"odd† or â€Å"strange† by the general public: the half cent, two-cent piece, three-cent piece, half dime, twenty-cent piece, quarter eagle, three dollar piece, half eagle, eagle, and double eagle. At the time, however, many of these were seen in everyday circulation, a completely normal denomination. Each of them had a purpose behind its inception and a practical use after mintage. For exampleRead MoreU.s History : American Civil War1423 Words   |  6 PagesOmer Bhatti U.S History I Professor Ojserkis U.S History I: Final Paper In early April 1861, the attack on Fort Sumter marked the beginning of the American Civil War. However, the belligerence of both sides of the war began long before the first shot. There is a great deal of possible causes of the Civil War, and in much disagreement with popular belief the war was not solely fought about the existence of slavery. Unfortunately, there is no simple reason why the war began because there were manyRead MoreThe Civil War Is The Deadliest War Of American History Essay1853 Words   |  8 PagesThe Civil War is the deadliest war in American History. Between 1861 and 1865, over 600,000 brave souls lost their lives at nearly 10,500 battles. By the end of the war, there were nearly 200,000 African-Americans that fought on the side of the North, with 80 percent recruited from slave states (Half Slave and Half Free, 240). Wars are fought over irreconcilable differences. There may not be one specific cause. Directly or indirectly, slavery was intertwined in many of these differences and the physicalRead More History of The American Civil War Essay1540 Words   |  7 PagesHistory of The American Civil War The Civil War was a brutal war between the North and South of America over the issue of slavery, which was spurred on by the secession of the southern states from the Union of a America. At the time slavery was one of the main issues in America that caused a disagreement between the north and south and these disagreements about humanity and slaves added to the tension that would finally lead to the out break of war. Slavery was almost totally abolished in

Pompeii the best

Pompeii the best-documented catastrophe in Antiquity Essay Pompeii is possibly the best-documented catastrophe in Antiquity. Because of it, we know now how the Pompeians lived because they left behind an extensive legacy of art, including monuments, sculptures and paintings. Pompeii lay on a plateau of ancient lava near the Bay of Naples in western Italy in a region called Campania, less than 1. 6 kilometers from the foot of Mount Vesuvius. With the coast to the west and the Apennine Mountains to the East, Campania is a fertile plain, traversed by two major rivers and rich soil. However, in the early days, it was not a remarkable city. Scholars have not been able to identify Pompeiis original inhabitants. The first people to settle in this region were probably prehistoric hunters and fishers. By at least the eight century B. C. , a group of Italic people known as the Oscans occupied the region; they most likely established Pompeii, although the exact date of its origin is unknown. The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the Oscan word for the number five, pompe, which suggests that either the community consisted of five hamlets or, perhaps, was settled by a family group (gens Pompeia)(Kraus 7). In the course of the eight century B. C. , Greek and Etruscan colonization stimulated the development of Pompeii as a city around the area of the Forum. A point for important trade routes, it became a place for trading towards the inland. Up until the middle of the 5th century B. C. , the city was dominated politically by the Etruscans. In the course of the 6th century B. C. , the influence of Greek culture is also documented by terracottas, ceramics and architecture. A group of warriors from Samnium, called Samnite, invaded the region in the 400s B. C. Pompeii remained a relatively unimportant illage until the 200s B. C. , when the town entered a prosperous period of building and expansion. The Romans defeated the Samnites, and Pompeii became part of the emerging Roman state. Pompeii joined the Italic revolt against Rome, the Social War of 91-87 B. C. , and was crushed by Sulla. Although the city was not destroyed, it lost its autonomy, becoming a colony called Colonia Veernia Cornelia P, in honor of its conqueror L. Cornelius Sulla. By 79 AD, Latin had replaced Oscan as the principal language, and the laws and culture of Imperial Rome were implanted. The romanization had began. Pompeii grew from a modest farming town to an important and sophisticated industrial and trading center. In 62 A. D. , the first disaster, a terrible earthquake hit the city. As the city was being rebuilt the second disaster struck. In the summer of A. D. 79, Vesuvius suddenly erupted with violence. Hot ashes, lava and stones poured into Pompeii. The eruption caught Pompeians by surprise: They heard the crash of falling roofs: an instant more and the mountain-cloud seemed to roll towards them, dark and rapid, like a torrent; at the same time, it cast forth from its bosom a showe of ashes mixed with vast ragments of burning stone! over the crushing vines- over the desolate streets- over the amphitheater itself- far and wide- with many a mighty splash in the agitated sea- fell that awful shower. , (Bulwer-Lytton 1). The remains of about 2,000 victims out of a population of 20,000 have been found in excavations. Some of them were trapped and killed in their homes. Others died as they fl ed. Archaeologists have found the shells (molds) of the bodies preserved in the hardened ash. By pouring plaster into the shells, they can make copies of the victims, even to the xpressions of agony on their faces. Pompeii was not forgotten. Peasants in the area searched for hidden treasure and they made tunnels. In the 1500s workers digging a tunnel to change the course of the Sarno river discovered parts of a temple and the forum, but no one paid much attention. In 1748, a farmer discovered a wall and the authorities in Italy began a series of excavations. After 1860, Giuseppe Fiorelli served as director of the excavations. He directed the first uncovering of the whole city block by block. The Italian government has provided funding money for this project. After many years of work, we can now walk in Pompeii as Pompeians did. After standing in line for quite a while and paying for a ticket, the tourist experiences what are about to live are quite unique. When walking in Pompeii, you can close your eyes and feel the magic of the city, because it seems like the time has not gone by. Visitors can see the buildings as they stood 2,000 years ago. They can walk in and out of houses and up and down narrow streets, see the Temple of Jupiter, which was an ancient ruin at the time of the eruption, or sit in a tepidarium (part of a Roman public ath). Tourists can also visit the Antiquarium and see the casts of some of the bodies, houseware, the remains of food such as carbonized loaves of bread, eggs and other things that also date back to ancient Rome. The center of public life is called the Forum, and it played a fundamental role in the political, religious and economic life of the city. FATE OF MACBETH EssayThe immediate models were the illusionistic stage sets of the Hellenistic-Roman theater and the new baroque fashions of 2nd-1st cent. B. C. architecture. (Giuntoli 6). Some scholars have argued that this style also has precedents in Greece, but most believe that is roman invention. The aim of this style painters was not to create the appearance of elegant marble walls, but rather to dissolve the confining walls of a room and replace them with the illusion of a three dimensional world constructed in the artists imagination. It seems he is inviting us into his world. In the cubiculum 16, in the Villa of the Mysteries, we can see how this style is characterized by painted columns breaking through the picture plane, architectural vistas teasing the eye with perspective recessions (Pompeii 1). It seems that the aim of the artist is to make the room look larger, and also appears deeper than it really is. He uses bright colors to achieved these effects. There is an optical effect stronger than the one of the First Style. The Third Style, or ornamental, was a reaction to the illusionism of Style II, together with the preference for a more classic typical art of the Augustan period. Painters o longer wanted to replace the walls with three-dimensional worlds of their own creation. Instead they decorated the homes of rich Romans with delicate linear fantasies, The walls are once more simple flat surfaces which mark the boundaries of an enclosed space are subdivided horizontally and vertically into monochrome areas articulated by slender architectural and decorative elements. The focal point is a painting in the center, generally of mythological, religious or idyllic subject, set inside an aedicule flanked by panels with small scenes suspended in the center which depict miniature figures and landscapes. Giuntoli 7). In the North wall of the red cubiculum, from the Villa of Boscotrecase, in the Museo Nazionale, Naples, we have one of the best examples of the 3rd Style. The villa was owned by Agrippa Postumus and was decorated about 11 B. C. We can see here, a landscape, in the middle of the red wall, representing a sacred precint dominated by the statue of a seated goddess. It measures only 15 by 179, and it was appropriate to this hall of 198 by 29, one of the largest in Pompeii. It does not fill the whole wall as in the Third Style, now is only a picture in every central wall. It is almost square and has smaller dimensions. The artist wanted to give us the impression of a picture hanging on the wall. The colors have changed from lively reds, greens and oranges to broken tones, combining soft browns, a green somewhat on the blue side and an unusual violet. Now, we begin to see a contour around the figures. The Fourth Style, became popular in the period of Claudius and Nero, when the earthquake struck in A. D. 72 and the Vesuvius erupted in 79 A. D. Returns once again to the architectural illusionism. It is inspired by the Second and Third styles. It was originated in Rome. The colors are more decided and tend to contrasting lively color effects, the decorative element multiply and crowd together, alternating with illusionistic architectural views and pictures of mythological subjects often painted in the impressionistic technique. A particular type is that of suspended carpets with small pictures and figures in the center, inspired by the Hellenistic fashion of hanging decorative tapestries on the walls. ( Giuntoli 7). In the Large hall, House of Fabius Rufus, we have one of the best examples of the 4th Style. The house is situated on the southwest edge of the city and it has a plendid view of the sea, it is the largest room of the house. On a black-ground enlived by animals, vases, musical instruments and others, we can see the three-dimensional effects, enhanced, for example by the woman on the balcony on the left. Apollo, Bachus and Venus appear in the main picture, in the upper zone above them is Leda with her swan, and small personifications of muses stand alone in the sides. The decoration stands out because of the blackground. From personal experience, I can say that after touring Pompeii, I was glad that such a catastrophe preserved the city. If you enjoy art, it is a must see.

Political Economy of Pakistan free essay sample

Politically, religious fundamentalism, sectarian violence, ethnic differences, terrorism and regional economic disparities have made country unstable which contributed toward the unsatisfactory economic condition. It is usually believed that economy grows in presence of political solidity but in the case of Pakistan it rejects the conventional wisdom. Much of countries economic growth has been witnessed in the military regimes which ruled country for nearly three decades. The reasons for this will also be discussed later. Pakistan has been ruled for 29 years by four Military Governments . Army has a significant role in Pakistan’s politics, foreign affairs and supporting individuals. Moreover, the growing economic and corporate interests of the Pakistan army, makes it an important stake holder in decisions regarding trade, investment and issues of property rights . No doubt, Pakistan’s military is the most power institute of the country. The fact that military dominates Pakistan’s political, domestic, regional and global scene, is reflection of power of military but it also how the failure of civil society and political institutions. We will write a custom essay sample on Political Economy of Pakistan or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In order to examine the nature of Pakistan’s economic and political past, a history can be divided into seven different periods which are chronologically discussed below. Civilian Bureaucracy and Industrialization: 1947-58 Pakistan came in to being as a devastated country after partition of united India. The geographic location of East Pakistan with India separating West Pakistan put the country at a serious disadvantage. The country started with meager resources. The old remnants of British regime were the bureaucracy which became powerful and started running the state and they were responsible to ensure the survival of the country in hard time with their policies. The political entities included landowners, feudal and a number of tribal leaders. Since there was no industry, there was no industry related individual class and this led to the domination of bureaucracy in politics. The political equation consisted of bureaucracy, land owning politicians and tribal leaders. After making unexampled gains from Korean War bonanza, the mercantile capitalists emerged and strengthened their economic position in the society. Many traders who earned money and made profits in 1950 started investing in industry and later emerged as industrialists in 1960. The industrial process which took place in mid and late 1950’s was encouraged by the bureaucracy which played an important role in establishing industrial units in the country. State owned institutions like PICIC and PIDC encouraged the development and growth of industry. The import substitution industrialization policy was adopted by the government institutions and bureaucracy and it acted as an impetus to the nature and direction of industry. The first decade seem to bureaucracy led and assisted industrialization. The bureaucracy led the political settlement and determined the outcomes of policy and purpose. Industry became the subordinate partner in that process. Other political groups had very little to offer at that time because of being nascent. The landlords and tribal leaders have little to say in politics and the economic policy was not directed toward well being of them. The growth rates in agriculture were poor and industry was prioritized over agriculture which was the livelihood of 80% of country’s population which dwelled in rural areas. Since much of bureaucracy was composed of urban migrants from India, they had little interest in agriculture. Industrialist gained high profits in early year but they never become a political force and were reliant on bureaucracy. Political wrangling between landowning class politicians did not allow them to become a force. With porous ranks among political groups, the military stepped in to reinstate law and order and continue to run bureaucratic capitalism. Civil and Military Bureaucratic Capitalism: 1958-71 The military emerged as a stabilizing actor under whose authority and rule, industrialization with the help of bureaucracy and emerging industrialists could grow more. The very high growth rates in the economy and large scale manufacturing (LSM) would not have been possible without a central command and military was the only institution able of reliable at that time. Ayub Khan took full control of state in October 1958 and this was the golden era of Pakistan’s history. GDP growth rate rose to 6% from 3% in the 1950’s. The manufacturing sector grew by 9% annually and agriculture at a respectable 4%. The agriculture sector was revolutionized by increase in production and land reforms. This resulted in the rise of capitalist agriculture development. This produced a consumer class for industrial products without which industrial revolution could not have taken place. Shahid Javed Burki argues that, â€Å"toward the late 1950’s, landlords were again emerging on the political horizon, and Ayub Khan’s shifting of power from Karachi to Lahore and Rawalpindi resulted in more representation from indigenous and rural Pakistan, which is on reason why agriculture gained prominence throughout the decade†. 1 The 1960’s was a decade of emergence of new political groups and economic classes. In agriculture the control of large landowners was not completely broken but it was certainly loosen due to the emergence of middle class farmers resulting from the green revolution. In rural areas small manufacturing units and skilled and technical workers emerged to provide services to new economy. The Basic democracies system accommodated the new agriculture capitalists and the rural politicians were now the part of the alliance of military and bureaucracy. Elsewhere, the income inequalities between East and West Pakistan increased and resentment grew in Bengalis against the West Pakistan which resulted in widespread movement, which ultimately led to separation of Bengal in 1971. The Socialist Seventies of Bhutto: 1971-77 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto emerged as a popular political leader after the glorious decade of development and growth. Groups, other than industrialists, bureaucracy and military, rallied behind Bhutto and became source of his power. Bhutto was a staunch supporter of socialism and this is reflected in his government policies. In the early years of his regime, labor, peasants, farmers and rural and urban educated class hailed his socialist policies. Bureaucracy and industrialists became target of his socialist policies along with large landowning class and were discredited. However, bureaucracy, military and landowning class again emerged after few years. Bureaucracy became more powerful in the awake of nationalization and strengthened its hold over means of productions. The military became favored due to an armed rebellion in Baluchistan. The 1972 land reforms did not proved to be a success and land owners again gained prominence and a number of large landowners became members of Pakistan People’s Party. Educated left leaning middle class was against this but persisted with his social reform agenda. The nationalization of banks was carried out and it broke the link between industrialists and finance sector and industrialists fled the capital away. Small scale industry and informal sector became backbone of country. The journey to modernization and economic growth ended and along with natural disasters and oil price shock of 1970 became the reason of removal of Bhutto. The urban middle class, military and bureaucracy were instrumental in removing Bhutto. Hence, between 1947 and 1977 large scale development took place and an urban middle class emerged which was economically sound and young but was non-existent in politics. Industrialists who earned good profits and put country on growth track became ghosts in 1970 and feudal gained a good hand in politics in Sind, Punjab and parts of Baluchistan. However, bureaucracy was the only class which does not lost its importance and continues to influence on the political structure of the country. A Military State and the Middle Classes: 1977-88 The overthrow of Bhutto government by a military coup in 1977 brought General Zia ul Haq to power. It strengthened the supremacy of the civil and military bureaucracy not just on political map of Pakistan but also on allocation and production of economic resources. With the political and governmental roles and authority in hand, the civil and military bureaucracy emerged as an important and well-established unit in economy. Although, Zia was a staunch supporter of private sector in economy but the nationalized industries were not denationalized because it allowed the bureaucracy to play an important role in the economy. Many retired and serving military personals were posted on lucrative positions in the public sector. The private sector looked up to the military and they established close ties with the military in order to foster. Also one important factor was the large amount of military and economic aid by USA due to Soviet-Afghan war. Corruption, smuggling, drug mafia, sectarian violence and AK-47 culture were introduced which proved to be a disaster for country in future. The Gulf remittances were also an important factor in lifting up the economy. Almost 20 billion dollars were remitted to Pakistan from 1977 to 1987. Economic conditions improved as GDP grew at 6. 6% annually with agriculture at 4% and large scale manufacturing at 9% but fiscal deficit widened to 8%. Domestic borrowings in long run affected economy and Pakistan approached IMF in 1988. Zia regime as a whole produced military industrialists and businessmen with armed forces personal making fortunes from Soviet-Afghan war invested in business and became bosses in the private sector. Since, political activity was banned until 1985. Due to restrictions, those with means, especially the rising middle class, were to contest the elections for first time in local bodies’ elections. They were able to enter politics because of the absence of rich, significant and established political actors. However, the military had full control of political scenario in the country. The Unstable Democratic Interregnum: 1988-99 After the death of General Zia ul Haq in a plane bomb blast in 1988, Pakistan began its journey of democracy again. In this democratic period four elections were held of which most were rigged and manipulated. Nine different governments (four elected, four interim and one military after October 1999 coup) ruled country in this time period. Mian Nawaz Sharif contested from platform of IJI in 1991, most of his compatriots in IJI were those who benefited from the Zia regime, who were industrialists and joined class of politics. The 1990s was the time when the economic interests of middle and influential Pakistan became expressed into politics and into a desire to use politics for economic gain and political control. The 1990s witnessed high instability in Pakistan. The bureaucratic and other hierarchical non-democratic institutions and organizations interfered in the democratic transfer of power. The rise of middle class continued but it was not powerful enough to be a political force and relied on military in this regard. The economic situation on the other hand deteriorated. The GDP rate lowered to 4% and foreign investment ratio fell to 13. 9%. The fiscal deficit remained above 7% and external deficits 4-5% led to amassing of large domestic and foreign debts. Social sector expenditures were cut down to service the debt. Pakistan lost its share in world trade and the economic progress become stagnant. Overall, if the political governments have been able to complete their tenure, it would have been much better in economic terms as policies implemented would have brought fruits in long term. The Return of Military to the Power: 1999-2007 General Pervez Musharraf led the military coup in 1999 to seize the power and removed the Prime Minister, Mian Nawaz Sharif from the office to save the country from corruption and put economy on the course of growth. The Musharraf regime was similar to other military regimes with regard to Local Government Election and devolution of power. Like the regime of General Zia ul Haq, Musharraf also became part of the Afghan war after 9/11 attacks and it brought Pakistan good fortunes in term of military and economic aid which for a time period strengthened the economy but it was temporary. General Musharraf instilled military personals into different public institutes military actively took control of every public sector department and strengthened the control over economy. Unlike previous military governments, Musharraf faced a more powerful, free and vibrant media in the country which in the end much contributed to his demise and downfall. In addition to that, the external influences like the Super power, USA much determined Pakistan’s domestic and foreign policies in the awake of Afghan invasion. Pakistan’s religious parties for first time formed an alliance and took a number of seats in parliament and dominated it and provided a shield to the regime. General Musharraf also won the support of urban middle class and elites who supported him as an enlightened military ruler and who benefited from his economic policies. The economic situation of the country became better and growth rates averaged at 7%, poverty and unemployment fell by 5-10% and 6. % from 8. 4% respectively. The investment rate grew to 23% of GDP and foreign reserves also showed a significant improvement. The global financial crisis and recession in 2007 hampered Pakistan’s economic progress and growth halted as the demand for Pakistani products in OECD markets fell. The judicial crisis and the return of important political leaders f rom abroad along with governance problems and military operation in Baluchistan added to unpopularity of the military government and it finally ended after 2008 elections. The Post Musharraf Era: 2008-Present After the 2008 elections, Pakistan People’s Party came into Power and the democratic vehicle started to move forward but it has not been as effective it should be in order to improve the political and economic situation. With a slender majority in parliament, the government is reliant on its allies and it is not able to refuse their illegitimate demands and to keep everyone happy, the government is over spending and domestic and foreign borrowings have put the economy in a situation of jeopardy. Inflation has jumped up to double figures and the lower and middle class have severely been hit by it. Rise of oil prices, energy crisis, and violence in Karachi, KPK and Baluchistan has lowered the economic growth rates and hampered the progress. Industrialist class has been severely hit by energy crisis and textile products export has fell down. The unemployment rates are high and according to a UN report the 50% of total population is estimated to be living in poverty. GDP growth rate is around 3% and fiscal deficit is above 6% and currency is at all time low against dollar. Natural disasters like floods have also lowered the agriculture productivity which is major pillar of economy. Overall services sector has grown and government has actively created new jobs on political basis to accommodate its supporters and allies. There is unrest among the population and this situation has given a chance to parties like PTI, which is a youth party to become popular and it can bring a change in the politics of Pakistan in future. External Influences External influences have also been an important factor in shaping Pakistan’s political and economic structure. From early days, Pakistan allied with USA gainst communism and this contributed much to an elite capitalist state in which large landowners and industrialists dominated the political and economic scenario along with military and bureaucracy. The IMF and World Bank led Structural Adjustment Programs put Pakistan on the path of liberalization and privatization which has resulted in a more powerful economic elite industrialists and politicians. The result of such capitalist programs is that income inequality has gro wn over the period of time and there is a wide gap between the income levels across country. The poor and lower middle class has almost no say in politics as they are not much educated and aware of their civil and political rights and cannot think further than earning for livelihood. The long enmity with India has also a major impact on the country’s economy. Much of resources and funds have been directed toward defense to secure the country against any military threat from India. It is also a cause of not having trade relations with India, which could have proved to beneficial for Pakistan in terms of economy. Recently, both countries have opened negotiations on trade and commerce. India emerged as powerful and dynamic economy in last decade and it has been largely due to a stable political environment unlike Pakistan where military has ruled mostly. Conclusion In a nutshell, Pakistan has not developed politically and economically in 64 years because of historical bureaucratic structure, an elite landowning politician class and most importantly a political military institution. The middle class has been a junior partner with military and bureaucracy for its own vested economic interests and due to this there has been no significant positive change in the political and economic structure. The external western influences have also played a part to strengthen the military and bureaucratic class and politician because of their particular interests and their funds and aid have been much used for political purpose rather for economic growth. The widespread violence in the aftermath of Soviet- Afghan war and US led invasion still haunts the country and most severely poor masses have been affected from this situation. A friendly neighbor in form of India could have been a blessing but on both sides of border it never happened to be a good fortune. Much of resources have been diverted for arms and ammunition rather than for education and economy. This all has contributed to a porous social, political and economic structure and a bleak future for democracy in the country. References: * Burki, Shahid Javed, Pakistan: A Nation in the Making, Westview Press, Boulder, 1986, p. 112. Bibliography: * S. Akbar Zaidi, Issues in Pakistan’s Economy, Second Edition * Dr Isharat Hussain, Pakistan and Afghanistan: Domestic Pressure and Regional Threats, The Role of Politics in Pakistan’s Economy.